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Tutorial (Week 2) ISYS224 Answer the following questions: 1 List four examples of database systems. 2 Discuss each of the following terms: Data, Database, Database Management System, Data Independence, Security, Integrity and Views. 3 Describe the approach taken to the handling of data in the early file-based systems. Discuss the disadvantages of this approach. 4 Describe the main characteristics of the database approach and contrast it with the file-based approach. 5 Discuss the roles of the following personnel in the database environment: Data Administrator Database Administrator Logical Database Designer Physical Database Designer Application Developer End-Users 6 Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of database management systems. 7 Discuss the concept of data independence and explain its importance in a database environment. 8 To address the issue of data independence, the ANSI-SPARC three-level architecture was proposed. Compare and contrast the three levels of this model. 9 What is a data model? Discuss the main types of data models. 0 Describe the types of facility you would expect to be provided in a multi-user DBMS. 11 Of the facilities described in your answer to Question 10, which ones do you think would not be needed in a standalone PC DBMS? Provide justification for your answer. 12 Consider a two-dimensional integer array of size m? n that is to be used in your favourite programming language. Using this array as an example, illustrate the difference (a) between the three levelsof data abstraction, and (b) between a schem a and an instance.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Corporate Budgets

Before beginning to comment on the usefulness of corporate budget, it is important to know what is the meaning and purpose of budget for a corporation. A budget is basically a financial planning tool which the organization uses to plan its expenses from the revenue. A budget is a comprehensive summary of the planned expenses and revenues of an organization which is used throughout the year.The main purpose of making a corporate budget is to forecast the revenues and expenditures so that particular strategies and events can be undertaken to achieve similar financial performance (Kemp & Dunbar 2003). The budgeting also enables the organization to compare the actual financial performance of the business against the forecast.Corporate budget is the annual budget compiled by the organization and is different from the start-up budget. It is a budget which is compiled by the finance department of an organization after every department contributes its expected revenues and expenses.This way a final corporate budget is drafted through the considerable effort of various people and technology in the organization and this serves as a financial plan for the new financial year (Shim & Siegel, 2008). The actual financial performance of the company in numbers is compared to the forecasted numbers and if this matches reasonably then this means that budgeting is of good use for the business.But if the actual numbers diverge considerably from the expected numbers then this means that budgeting is not useful for the company and business is not going in the intended direction. Budgeting is basically a tool organizations use for planning and controlling their organization’s financial performance.Previously, this task was mostly centralized but with changing times it has become a company-wide effort with all the managers and employees contributing to the final budget.The traditional method was the bottom-up approach in which the every department provides its expected revenues and request expenses which are then accommodated into the corporate budget but this approach is now being integrated with the top-down approach to budgeting where the top management defines the strategic objectives and then the budget is prepared by departments.What usually happens is that budgeting and forecasting starts with the previous year’s numbers which are incorporated into the new budget.But business are adopting strategic business planning where budget planning is based on the annual company’s objectives and then the budget is planned accordingly to achieve the desired goals for example, the objective is to increase the sales by 10% then more revenues and expenses are forecasted to achieve the increased sales objective (Society for HRM, 2005).This essay will first start by providing some advantages and disadvantages of budgeting done in organization. Then the statements provided are discussed in the light of these advantages and disadvantages. In the final se ction, an organization’s budgeting procedure is critically analyzed and reviewed.Before analyzing the statements regarding budgeting, the following paragraph provides some knowledge on the advantages and disadvantages of corporate budgeting.The first and foremost advantage of budgeting is that is that it forms a link between the management and resources by compelling the former to think about the future of the organization so that plans are set out for each department to achieve the targets.Secondly, budgeting is a source of communication from the top management to the department heads and managers about what is expected from them thus, promoting coordination between the two. Budget also serves as a yardstick with which actual financial performance is compared and measured.When there is a variance then it promoted remedial action. It is a way of identifying resources and requirements and providing guidelines to the departments so that they proceed in the right direction. Mana gers are able to focus on the specific plans as outlined by the budget so that they can be achieved within the estimated time and resources.When employees are given a chance to participate in the budget proposals then they become motivated and more productive. Proper budgetary planning can also ensure that resources are allocated productively, competitively and profitably resulting in cost reductions (Putra, 2008).There are also various drawbacks and problems attached to budgeting within organizations. The first problem to budgeting is that it pressurizes the managers to achieve the targets forcing them to do gaming in order to take advantage of the rewards or due to the fear that the funds will be reduced.Those managers can take the rewards that set for them easy goals but those managers can be penalized who set for them difficult but ambitious goals. Quality and customer service might deteriorate when the organization is striving to meet the budgetary targets and not the quality t argets.There are also bad labor relations due to budget pressures and conflicts arise between departments due to disputes over resource allocation and blames are thrown over each other when targets are not achieved. Due to budgeting managers sometimes overestimate the costs as well so that if there is any over expenditure then they are not blamed (Hope & Fraser, 2003).  Recently organizations have turned against budgeting. This is because the forecast are very different from the actual results obtained at the end of the year because a business is subject to a lot of internal and external changes throughout the year.With things changing so rapidly in the environment, nobody can closely predict what will be the position of the business after one whole year. At the end of the year it seems that planning and drafting the budget was a useless task and waste of time serving no purpose (Jensen 2001).Top management is often not able to take right decisions when there seems an environmenta l opportunity due to planned budget constraints. They want to carry on the business according to the planned budget and therefore, overlook the opportunities available at some time in the year.Few corporations have stopped this activity at all thinking that planning budget is a waste of precious organizational resources and time which can be spent elsewhere productively.Non-profit or governmental organizations usually do not use budgets for their planning since such organizations do not work earning revenues and therefore, no planning is required (Whiting 2000). However, few non-profit organizations do plan their expenses so that they can arrange for the required amount of funds through charity or grants.But there are some profit organizations as well who have realized with the passage of time that budgeting especially traditional form of budgeting is a waste of time and resources distorting decision making in fast changing environment (Merchant 1981).Examples include Rhodia, a Fren ch global specialty chemicals company which dispensed budgeting entirely in 1999, Borealis, a Danish petrochemicals company which abandoned budgeting in 1995 and Volvo, the Automaker which also abandoned budgeting considering it as time consuming and waste of resources.Budgeting is not common in smaller organization because they don’t know how to use budgets to plan their financial performance and goals (Rachlin 1999).The article titled ‘Why budgeting kills your company?’ explains in a very concrete manner how budgeting actually consumes organization’s financial and human resources which could have been employed elsewhere productively (Gary 2003). It says that the average billion dollar company spends around 25000 person-days per year in drafting the budget whereas this could have been utilized in increasing the shareholder return.Many organizations have begun to question the usefulness of traditional form of budgeting and are finding alternative ways for properly aligning the spending with strategy along with reduced time and resources (Bogsnes 2008). Today business of the entire world are facing tough times with the world economy in recession therefore, it is imprudent to justify increased costs for businesses due to budget planning (Schaumann 2007).While planning the budget the top management is mostly seen in cutting expenses even if it is damaging the high-performing units while only sustains the underperforming ones. The resources are not allocated towards the high performing and deserving projects due to budget planning. Some experts believe that budgeting should be dispensed all together and decisions regarding it should be placed with the employees who are in direct touch with the customers.The entire budgeting process takes a considerable length of time where first each department produces sales and capital needed forecast, then meetings are held to discuss the budget requests and for making the final decisions, budget book s are produced after months of meeting and this all together can take around six months and 20% of the management’s time (Gary 2003).Budgeting has become an expensive, time-taking and frustrating task for organizations because it is more like a fixed performance or implicit contract (Neely, Bourne & Adams 2003).And the thing that worsens budgeting even further is that financial incentives like career prospects and bonuses are attached to such contracts if the goals are achieved.Because of these financial incentives, managers and heads of department are pressurized to achieve the desired targets often resulting in distortion, misrepresentation and gaming on part of the most honest employees.Managers become schemers since they put a proposal of 50% more than the required budget because they know that they’ll be argued down by the senior management to the desired level (Belkaoui 1994). Moreover, managers also start spending too much if their spending does not match the fo recasted expenses due to the fear that if there is anything left over then their next year funding will be reduced.

The Development Of Children's Thinking Related To Mathematics Research Paper

The Development Of Children's Thinking Related To Mathematics - Research Paper Example Specifically addressing the cultural disparities, rather than focusing on elements of irrelevant ethnicity or dismissing merely because of socio-economic issues will help to find solutions for the problem as it is restructured for the reasons that these disparities occur, rather than unrelated assumptions (Bodovski & Farkas, 2007). When specifically researched, the disparities due to ethnic diversities, especially between Caucasians and African Americans, the differences can be measured because of the experiences that African American students have in classrooms where they are treated as if they will not learn the information, leaving them in a position where they are not encouraged, are not given adequate attention, nor expected to achieve. The disparities that are observed among children when demographic information is used in regard to ethnicity shows a wide achievement gap between Caucasians and Asians when compared to children who are African American and Latino. Culture, on the other hand, is far more influential than any other aspect of a child's life on how they will approach their education. Research, it appears, has been focused on the wrong criteria for interpreting the data. New information that has been observed for the reasons why children of different ethnicities have different levels of achievement relies on the experiences that children have within their own cultures in regard to learning in combination with the experiences that they have with learning opportunities within the school systems.

Public Communication Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Public Communication - Essay Example As a modern democratic society, the United States has seen enormous number of public communication campaigns. American presidential campaigns have their own distinct and influential position among them due to the sheer scope and range of such campaigns. Since American presidential campaigns are of long duration and watched by a large audience, they become the stage for the unfolding of most sophisticated communication strategies and tactics. Political rhetoric has profound influence in the making of the United States presidential election results. For a deep rhetorical analysis, a selected study in the context of American presidential elections would be an ideal choice. Michelle Obama, the American Lawyer and the wife of the 2008 Democratic nominee for the President of the United States of the America, Barack Obama. Michelle has been in a number of controversies since she sarted involving in the presidential campaigns as the prospective next first lady of the United States. In her famous August 2008 Democratic National Convention Speech gives a good portrayal of political rhetoric as a tool for disseminating a social construct, a built-up myth through a well crafted verbal image which is grounded on and legitimized by a prevalent, dominant ideology. In the speech, she presents a carefully constructed verbal image that sought to portray Barack Obama and her family as an embodiment of the American Dream, by forcefully putting forward the success story of her family. Theoretical Background Simply speaking, rhetoric is the art of persuasion. Rhetoric involves constructing ideas that could effectively symbolize what is advantageous to us. It implies that language is deployed in a particular way to achieve a determined response from a targeted group. Rhetoric is not only a real practice but also the theoretical study of discourse. It could be for leading them to a particular set of actions, to restrain them from something, to alter their beliefs or to inculcate new beliefs in them. Conventionally, rhetoric is considered as argumentation and persuasion. In the ancient world, it is important to note that rhetoric was major branch of academic learning along with grammar and logic. "In the Renaissance, rhetoric was regarded as a practical field of study for those interested in politics and law" (Edgar and Sedgwick, 2004, p.340). "Then in the 20 th century Kenneth Burke, Stephen Toulmin and Chaim Perelman with Lucie Olbrechts- Tyteca extended Aristotle's suggestion that: "Rhe toric is the counterpart of dialectic" (Mackery, 2005, p.2). There is a strong relationship between ones ability to influence the society and his/her ability to realize personal goals. Traditionally, Aristotle conceived rhetoric as an art of persuasion and its study as an effort to identify what is persuasive in a given situation. For Aristotle, messages become persuasive due to three proofs or appeals, namely Ethos, Pathos and Logos. The credibility of the speaker, referred as ethos, is an important factor in making a speech persuasive

Uranium processing plant in Tokai Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Uranium processing plant in Tokai - Essay Example criticality (a limited uncontrolled nuclear chain reaction), which continued intermittently for 20 hours.† IAEA remarked the cause as â€Å"human error and serious breaches of security principles† (World Nuclear Association) The accident took place when three workers were fabricating fuel for the JOYO experimental fast breeder reactor. It contained 18.8 percent enriched uranium. Then it was for the first time in three years that this reactor was fuelled and it was also found out that these workers were not professionally qualified and trained for operating such a reactor. The concentration of uranium was in excess inside the reactor which led to the accident and eventually, radioactive products were set out in the building. The workers who were near to the reactor showed symptoms like breathing trouble, nausea etc soon after the incident. The urgency lasted for around 20 hours. The sole cause of the accident was a critical error from the workers, that is, they filled a wrong concentration of uranium nitrate in the tank. The Chernobyl disaster of 1986 which is known as world’s largest nuclear disaster is also said to have occurred due to human errors. A commission of the USSR state committee attributed the flaws to the unscientific design and management of the power plant. The direct cause was similar to that of the Tokai accident. This accident also happened when some inexperienced hands involved in the maintenance of the reactor IV in the power plant. The Three Mile Island disaster which took place in 1979 was also an aftermath of human errors (The Japan Times). Blemishes in the user interface engineering were cited as the cardinal cause for the disaster. This directed to an incorrect understanding of the valve status. This provided another entry to the list of nuclear disasters. In all these cases, it can be noticed that human errors turned out to be the paramount antecedent for the mishaps. It is a known fact that tiny glitches can lead to behemoth

Globalization of Financial Markets SLP Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Globalization of Financial Markets SLP - Essay Example nd of the Second World War, organizations such as the International Monetary Fund, the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development and the GATT has spearheaded efforts for trade and development the world over (Caruana, 2007). Thus the goal of globalization is fast becoming a reality. The GATT gave way to the WTO or World Trade Organization on January 1, 1995. The WTO is a better representative of world trade with a membership of more than 150 countries of all sizes from various parts of the globe. However, globalization has been regarded as a two edged sword by some developing nations. They state that opening their borders to the more developed nations result in a gain to the developed economies while putting themselves at a loss. This is because the international franchises fast take over the new territories. People are attracted to them and spend a lot of money there, resulting in capital outflows to the developed world. There is a strong case for protecting the home industries from being ruined by opening the doors to globalization. Also the membership of the WTO requires adherence to the principles of non-discrimination, reciprocity, binding and enforceable commitments and transparency, the larger and more stable economies generally get more favorable status . Standards of quality control demanded by developed nations like the ISO certification may be hard to achieve by less technologically developed nations (Berniker et al., 2001). Let us take the case of Brazil. Brazil is one of the world’s leading economies and has the fastest growth in Latin America. It imports machinery, oil, electrical and transport equipment, chemicals, electronic goods and auto parts (CIA World Factbook, 2011). It exports steel, paper, iron ore, soybeans and coffee. China, the USA and Argentina rank among its best trading partners in terms of volume of trade conducted with them. Exposure to world markets has undoubtedly affected the price of coffee and soybeans both at home

Dietary Education Program for Patients at High Risk of Coronary Heart Dissertation

Dietary Education Program for Patients at High Risk of Coronary Heart Disease - Dissertation Example Conclusion and Recommendations P. 47 – P. 50 10. References P. 51 – P. 55 11. Bibliography P. 56 12. Appendices P. 65-83 Tables Table 1 Boolean Table P. 22-23 Table 2 Search Terms Acknowledgement My sincere thanks to people who have helped in the formulation of this paper, from the initial typing of the draft to the editing and correction my heart is filled with thanks. To my supervisor who painstakingly made corrections and suggestions, and to my classmates who also provided inspiration and suggestions, my personal appreciation and thanks. Without you, I wouldn’t be able to fulfil my academic obligations. Abstract Coronary heart disease is a common sickness and a major killer among industrialized countries of the world, Hong Kong not excluded. While we are considered advanced in many areas, in technology, the sciences and in medicine, we have forgotten how to deal with sickness and the common risk factors that kill our people. This is due primarily to our contin uing lifestyles of inactivity and continuous energy intake without regard for the kind of food we take. There are many suggestions contained in the literature on how to reduce CHD risk factors and deaths but the best suggestion so far is education. Through education available for patients and people at high risk of cardiovascular disease and CHD, we can reduce the risk factors and mortality of the disease. The aim of this study is to provide a dietary education approach for long term treatment of people at risk of CHD. Our conclusions and recommendations provided this approach and this is a combination of several strategies. The strategies include a community based education programme for patients and persons at high risk. The program should use the Mediterranean diet, or a pattern of fish, fish oil, olive oil, fruits and vegetables, which has to be combined with physical exercise. Other programmes include the INFO, PEP, FIT, which recommends healthy habits and physical exercise. Th e method used was review of the literature. The critique provided was a comprehensive study that applied various dimensions to include theoretical aspects, ethical issues, including the methodologic concepts, interpretations and presentation methods. The themes are all about dietary education to reduce the risk factors for CHD and to prevent myocardial infarction or cardiac event. In the reviews, we found the themes to be the focus for discussion and the influence of the body of the literature. Changes in major risk factors have positive effects in CHD mortality rates. Common risk factors are almost similar in many studies, such as blood pressure, cholesterol, smoking, obesity and diabetes. A study in Hong Kong concluded that for the period 1989 to 2001, CHD mortality was reduced by 78% due to improvements in treatment and education/information provided to patients and families. Compared to CHD mortality rates in western countries, Hong Kong’s was very low. Treatment, educati on and control of risk factors were attributable to reduction in CHD mortality rates. Chapter 1 Introduction Hospital Authority’s plan of action for the next five years addresses the issue of enhancing quality health care and patient-community relationship, along with adequate resources in meeting healthcare needs. The strategic planning process was led by the Hospital Authority Board and participated in by 750 stakeholders composed of patient groups, representatives, clinicians and heads of agencies. The Strategic Plan introduced a framework for healthcare workers and professionals

Virtue Ethics and Adultery Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Virtue Ethics and Adultery - Essay Example Ztohoven is a radical stylist who inserted an image of a mushroom cloud into a weather report on an ordinary morning. This act resulted into multiple condemnations, similar to those faced by Orson Welles in the H.G Well’s alien invasion radio play of 1938. Ztohoven’s video caused little panic though; neither did it find its classification as a classic despite making way to You tube. In addition to that, Ztohoven received an award from the National Gallery in Prague for the prank. Despite these accolades, the group was tried before a Czech court for claims of propagation of false information and scaremongering (LaFollette, 2013). By looking at the meteorological manipulation by this group, the author’s question of the responsibility that an artwork commands arises. Certain works are designed to be provocative, thus it is necessary to determine the point at which shock overweighs the intended purpose of an artwork. In addition to that, the relevance of the responsibility should consider the global environment that is full of hip-hop songs (Charry, 2012), movies and repulsive reality shows all which depict the nature of the current world. Chris Byrden, in the year 1970, publicly shot himself in the arm while Vito Acconci openly masturbated under a gallery floor. All this happened as his audience walked above him. The growth of installation and performance of the video art have pushed the levels of sexual content to a rather transgressive territory. This is even more surprising as all through the transformation, the human body has acted as the medium for expressing the changes in the artwork displayed to the public. Furthermore, the author highlights an incident in which Andrea Fraser tapes herself receiving $20,000 for the exchange of sex (Ley, 2012). As if not enough, Karen Finley strips naked before coating herself with chocolate while Santiago Sierra tattoos prostitutes. The question whether the artists are aware of

Prep 15 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Prep 15 - Essay Example In this case, variations in these isolated populations will be more as a result of genetic drift compared to natural selection. The molecular clock is a methodology in molecular evolution that uses rates of molecular change and fossil constraints to determine the time in geologic history when two species diverged. The technique is used to approximation the duration of occurrence of events called radiation or speciation. The molecular statistics used for such computations are usually for DNA sequences or amino acid sequences. It is possible to tell that the molecular clock is working because its principle of working is based on Charles Darwin theory of ev0lution. In addition, the concept of DNA sequence has been integrated in modern fossil dating techniques. In this case, the result obtained from molecular clock techniques are usually compared with those of other methodology. The molecular clock techniques yield desirable results when the species generations are not changing from time to time. The population size has to be sizeable to reduce the effect of genetic drift and the nature of protein studied requir es being stable. The neutral evolution theory, according to Sittyr (2009), is used for null hypothesis since it holds that the molecular evolutionary changes and other variation within species is not as a result of natural selection but by random drift of neutral mutant alleles. The concept is used to detect natural selection since it works to explain that genes do not experience natural selection but are affected by genetic drift. In this case, if the hypothesis of neutral evolution is not proven, then the national selection has taken place. When a synonymous, also referred to as silent mutation, occurs the change is frequently assumed to be neutral. This means that the ration of the organisms that are not affected by the mutation shows fitness of the individual with the new gene to reproduce and survive. Inbreeding is the production

Pick 5 characteristic or stereotypes about Germans that you hold to be Essay

Pick 5 characteristic or stereotypes about Germans that you hold to be true and admire to what extent are they opposite or comparable to American value - Essay Example They do not like to be interrupted once work has started and able to combine contradictory demands of efficiency and quality (Tomalin 18). Germans are very assertive in the sense they take pride in themselves and also regard themselves highly. They have high self-esteem and can communicate very well because they of their assertiveness. Another German trait is efficiency, sometimes brought to the extremes people often term it as cold efficiency or ruthless efficiency to the point of disregarding other peoples feelings as long as the job gets done. They want nothing to get in their way. Germans are also very rational, using logic and reason to pursue and justify their ends. This trait is often brought to extremes also to the point of becoming almost mechanical and it could be used to justify some wrong ends or objectives through twisted logic. Assertiveness and efficiency are two traits which are comparable to American values. On the other hand, I find orderliness and rationalism to be the exact opposites. Americans are fond of doing things they like such as living in a disorderly dorm room or starting several jobs at once. Americans are not so guilt-ridden with angst like the Germans with

Candela Corporation Case Essay Example for Free

Candela Corporation Case Essay In 2002, Candela Corporation statement of cash flows shows a net loss of income at $2,154,000. The reason for the loss is from accrual methods as non-cash expenses are added back. This method shows the company the true cash flows of the business. Some of the items that were added back in that had a significant affect is from loss of the discontinued operations and the interest firm the stock warrants. The categories that had significant subtractions were the foreign currency exchange rate difference and the respect of the deferred taxes. The results are the working capital that had resulted in a gross outflow of cash flow, which caused the cash outflow to show from the operating activities. There is a purchase of fixed assets in the investment activities, which caused an outflow of cash. In the financing activities, it looks as if the total outflows were trying to stay in control with acquiring a modest debt and share issue. However, because of the previous commitments that the business had, they were required to buy back stock and to continue to pay on the existing debt. However, when this happened it caused another outflow of cash, and the results are a negative balance with the operating, investing, and financing activities. With the company they had a previous cash balance and had the ability to survive with a severe damaging effect to the cash balance. The net profit in 2003 was 6,814,000 as shown on the statement. Adjustments were made in the non-cash items. A very important adjustment was in the loss from notional interest on stock warrants, discontinued operations, notional interest on stock warrants, and the foreign exchange rate difference accrued. This tax benefit of stock option and the respect of deferred taxes were two important subtractions. The analysis of the working capital is there was cash flow from the notes, deferred income, the sale of inventories, sale of other assets, and more control on payroll cost and tax refund. These cash outflows came from warranty cost, receivables, payment of payables, and restricted cash. This created a positive cash flow from the operating activities. The investing activities showed that there was one purchase in fixed assets category, which caused an outflow in the terms of investing. The financing activities show an increase for the shares sold, following a good amount of a payment in the long-term debt and the lines of credit. Therefore, with in inflow of the share issue becoming larger, this produced n inflow of cash. Not including the investing activities, the other two activities created a positive cash flow, therefore increasing the company’s cash reserves. A net profit was shown on the statement in 2004 of $8,119,000. This adjusted non-cash items accurately were important add-ons were a new provision for loss on discontinued operations, the loss from discontinued operations, the foreign exchange rate difference, and deferred taxes. The subtraction that was considerable was in the respect of benefit on stock options. This is an indication that the business is showing advancement. The analysis of the working capital is for this year cash flows were from the notes, deferred income, warranty costs, a control on payroll cost, and taking some services on credit. The cash outflows were from the receivables (higher credit sales), restricted cash, purchase of inventory, and other current assets. Meanwhile the non-cash adjustment created a positive figure along with positive cash inflows from the working capital adjustments, created a positive cash flow from operations activities. The purchase of fixed asset of $685,000, lower from the former year, shows that the business purchased most of its fixed assets last year and this year the business needed less. Their financing activities only showed activity for the shares issued and it showed a positive inflow of cash. Besides the investing activities, the other two activities were showing positive, giving the company a positive net flow of cash and an increase in the business’s cash reserves. The information that was not found on the income statement or the balance sheet is as listed: 1. The cash that was received from sales. 2. Any payments that were made to suppliers and/or employees. 3. The cash receipts or payments on behalf of royalty fees, etc. 4. Any interest and taxes have been paid. 5. The cash receipts for issue of shares. 6. The money receipt or payment for acquisition or disposal of fixed assets. 7. Any cash payments for debentures 8. The dividends paid or received. 9. Segregation of any non-cash items. 10. The ability to forecast future cash flows 11. Highlighting any of the business area that is need of management attention in the terms of cash flow.

Gay Right and Gay Marriage Essay Example for Free

Gay Right and Gay Marriage Essay The Gays Rights Movement has existed for over 89 years in counting since the development of the Society for Human Rights in Chicago. During the early years of the Gay Rights movement (1924-1973) it was very difficult to identify as a member of the same sex loving community because during this time it was illegal in the United States. Society didn’t accept the concept due to it being against traditional customs and norms. â€Å"The period since the late 1960s has been a time of gay liberation, more accurately, the movement of gay men and lesbian woman to overcame discrimination and gain rights in society. † (Collins Coltrane, 2001) During the early years the LBGT community was a private and out of sight lifestyle. The history of the movement reports homosexuality was previously identified as a mental disorder of American Psychiatric Association until 1973 when it was removed. (â€Å"The American gay,† 2000-2013) According to World of Sociology (2001), â€Å"Conflict theory emphasizes the role of coercion and power in producing social order.† (pg.118) (â€Å"Conflict theory,† 2001) â€Å"This perspective is derived from the works of Karl Marx, who saw society as fragmented into groups that compete for social and economic resources. Social order is maintained by domination, with power in the hands of those with the greatest political, economic, and social resources. When consensus exists, it is attributable to people being united around common interests, often in opposition to other groups. According to conflict theory, inequality exists because those in con trol of a disproportionate share of society’s resources actively defend their advantages. The masses are not bound to society by their shared values, but by coercion at the hands of those in power.† (Crossman, A., 2013) â€Å"There is also an expansion Marxs idea that the key conflict in society was strictly economic. Today, conflict theorists find social conflict between any groups in which the potential for inequality  exists: racial, gender, religious, political, economic, and so on. Conflict theorists note that unequal groups usually have conflicting values and agendas, causing them to compete against one another. The conflict theory ultimately attributes humanitarian efforts, altruism, democracy, civil rights, and other positive aspects of society to capitalistic designs to control the masses, not to inherent interests in preserving society and social order. This perspective emphasizes social control, not consensus and conformity. Groups and individuals advance their own interests, struggling over control of societal resources.† (Crossman, A., 2013) After 1973 it appears that homosexuality became identified as LGBT. Nationwide legal system and religions organization felt the need to challenges and felt these acts was a constitutional violation. Sometime around the 1974, gays and lesbians were becoming present in â€Å"positions of power† like Harvey Milk who was City Commissioner of San Francisco. They were also seeking and granted domestic-partnership benefits by 1984 in California. These obstacles for the LGBT community were met with rejections and oppressions by American governments and its supporters. In 1993, many men and women were discharged from the armed forces due to â€Å"Don’t Ask, Don’t Tell.† By 1996 the issue of homosexuality and lesbianism had reached the Supreme Court with some achieveme nts but mostly â€Å"knock downs†. ABA Journal published an article â€Å"The Stonewall legacy: ABA Commission creates an award commemorating a key moment for LBGT rights â€Å"on February 2013. The article explains how in the late hours of June 27, 1969 in Greenwich Village, New York at the Stonewall Inn a number of patrons fought law enforcement after numerous experiences with polices raids and other forms of harassments by authority. The articles explained how the Stonewall Inn was a â€Å"well-known† gathering spot for gays in the low-profile area of New York. The patrons throw beer cans, bricks and other objects at arresting officers as they interrupted their only opportunity to socialize with other gay individuals. After experiencing countless riots, arrest and beating the patrons developed a protest known as the Stonewall Riots (movement). The individuals involved in the riot were not only gay males but lesbian (same loving females), bisexual (both sex loving) and transgender (opposite sex identifying) individuals. After about one years of the establishment of the movement gay prides were started in Chicago, Los Angles, New York and San Francisco. The progress in the  movement encouraged the LBGT (lesbian, bi, gay and transgender) individuals to begin to assert their civil rights. James J.S. Holmes, chair of the Commission of Sexual Orientation and Gender Identify/ABA reports, â€Å"The riots were a very visible and public display where the LGBT community finally made it clear it wasn’t going to accept any more repression and poor treatment.† (Filisko, 2013) As the gay bar was for many whites a refuge from homophobia, so family and church were refuges from racism for lesbians and gays of color, including racism in the white lesbian and gay community. Rather than smashing the church and turning their back on family, lesbians and gays of color needed to find ways to negotiate or confront homophobia in those places while at the same time negotiating racism within the gay community.† Many couples like Jack Baker and Michael McConnell or Phyllis Marshall and Grace Thornton fought so hard to fight the â€Å"co ercion and power† and â€Å"the hands of those with the greatest political, economic, and social resources† specifically the church and other opposing LGBT groups who felt that their movement was either too soon or out of mainstream (outside of box). (Chenier, 2013) The current issues being address now by society and LGBT individuals seeking matrimony rights. (â€Å"The American gay,† 2000-2013) Most recently on June 26, 2013 the Supreme Court ruled that the 1996 Defense of Marriage Act (DOMA) is unconstitutional. In a 5 to 4 vote, the court rules that DOMA violates the rights of gays and lesbians. The court also rules that the law interferes with the states rights to define marriage. It is the first case ever on the issue of gay marriage for the Supreme Court. (Johnson, 2013) Johnson reports that â€Å"the DOMA decision was a huge psychological and legal boost for the gay and lesbian community, but it left same-sex couples in 37 states with half a loafonly thir teen states and the District of Columbia allow such marriage.† (Johnson, 2013) In 2000, Vermont becomes the first state in the country to legally recognize civil unions between gay or lesbian couples. It was stated that â€Å"couples would be entitled to the same benefits, privileges, and responsibilities as spouses.† The Gay Lesbian Review Worldwide published an essay by author Elise Chenier that reported, â€Å"for the past ten years, same-sex marriage has dominated the American political landscape, but this is not the first time in history this issue has made front-page news. In 1971, The San Francisco Chronicle declared that a gay marriage boom was under way. In the first  few years of that decade, The New York Times, Life magazine, Jet, and other periodicals ran feature articles about a handful of couples who launched Americas first battles for legal recognition of same-sex marriage.† Chenier states †¦liberationists critique of marriage and family di d not make sense for people of color, who relied on family and church for their everyday survival, even as they battled homophobia within them. Gay marriage is a topic that I have had to experience in my personal life when my two childhood friends of twenty years decided to have a marriage ceremony/party in Washington, DC. This party was held about three year ago and they have been dating for two years. After college both of my friends attended Morris Brown College in Georgia. They sent out invites and made announcements for the gathering of friends and love one. My family and I were not aware that they were a same sex couple let alone seeking marriage equality. When we all arrived in Georgia we thought it was a celebration party because they both are successful defense attorneys in Georgia. I was very surprise to see an altar, ceremony minister, flowers and a detailed tuxedo for me. They pulled me and my wife to the side and asked if I was willing to participate in their special day. We were really good friends in high school so against my strict Christian upbringing I participated in the ceremony. Unfortunately, before the grooms could exchange vows and commit themselves to one another the media busted into the location and started taking pictures and causing issues. I felt this was a private and interment ceremony for my friends and it would not end well. A crowd of protestors and media gathered outside. Law enforcement was contacted and some protestors and ceremony members including one of my friends were arrested. My couple plans to get married in the 2014 after ruling of unconstitutional of DOMA and I plan to be front and center. I was enraged at the disrespect these two successful guys had experience at the hands of inequality. After speaking with my friends about the aftermath, experiencing the inequality first-hand and completing this assignment. It is definitely obvious that the progress the Gay Rights Advocates has made toward demanding equal and I feel obligated to promote equality for all people. Reference Chenier, E. (2013). Gay marriage, 1970s style. The Gay Lesbian Review Worldwide, 20(2), 19+. Retrieved from http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?id=GALE%7CA321900004v=2.1u=lom_kentdlit=rp=GRGMsw=w Cohen, L. (2013). The federal role in the family. Commentary, 136(2), 7+. Retrieved from http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?id=GALE%7CA341125184v=2.1u=lom_kentdlit=rp=GPSsw=wasid=30b2787a87635f60db13fe9df042a70a Coltrane, S., Collins, R. (2001). Sociology of marriage the family, gender, love, and property. (5th ed). Canada: Wadsworth Pub Co. Crossman, A. (2013). Conflict Theory: Overview. About.com online. Retrieved from http://sociology.about.com/od/Sociological-Theory/a/Conflict-Theory.htm. Filisko, G. M. (2013, February). The Stonewall legacy: ABA Commission creates an award commemorating a key moment for LGBT rights. ABA Journal, 99(2), 57+. Retrieved from http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?id=GALE%7CA318106223v=2.1u=lom_kentdlit=rp=GRGMsw=w Johnson, F. (2013). DOMA Didnt Go AwayIt Just Went Local. National Journal. Retrieved from http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?i d=GALE%7CA344159967v=2.1u=lom_kentdlit=rp=GPSsw=wasid=7d18e04c20680c7230095f8f3e1baab5 Palmisano, J. (Eds.). (2001). World of sociology, (vol. 2). Farmington Hills, MI: Gale Group. The American Gay Rights Movement: A Timeline. (n.d.). Infoplease.com online. Retrieved from http://www.infoplease.com/ipa/A0761909.html.

Gender Divisions and Differences in Work

Gender Divisions and Differences in Work Today, women have gained a new equality with men. This perspective is indisputable’ This review explores the contemporary literature on the theme of ‘women and work’ in the light of the suggestion that women have indisputably gained a new equality with men. Overwhelming evidence has been found for the persistence of gender inequalities which work to disadvantage women in the context of work, including domestic work, although it is clear that providing explanations for this phenomenon has shown that the issue is complex and highly contested. It is argued that a redefinition and re-interpretation of the inter-dependence between paid and unpaid work, care and leisure is needed. There seems no doubt that in order for there to be a greater measure of real gender equality, male identity, in particular, must beer-examined and changed. It seems clear that research and policy are focusing more on the ways in which caring, in particular, is perceived and constructed in gender terms. However, in order to effect real change in gender equality, it is argued that there must be recognition of the myriad of ways in which both masculinities and femininities are constructed and interact with each other in this complex field. Chapter One Introduction The focus of this literature review is upon the theme of women and work within the context of the premise that women have gained an indisputable equality with men. Whilst it seems, in theory, more ‘equitable’, to have included commentary and research in equal amounts from men and women, an exploration of the literature revealed a far greater contribution to the debate from women than from men, perhaps by virtue of women’s perception of their own disadvantaged position, and this bias is consequently reflected in the variety of sources cited. Literature search was conducted within a University library database, using the search criteria ‘women and work’ and ‘gender equality and work’ and this yielded access to a selection of books and articles. The sources selected for inclusion in the review were restricted to those which specifically focus upon gender differences and inequalities in the realm of work, defined in its widest sense to include that undertaken within the household as well as work in the formal labour market. Due to the plethora of writing and research in this field, the decision was made to restrict sources to those produced within the last ten years, thus maintaining a contemporary focus, although references are made to earlier works. Chapter topics reflect the themes which emerged from the literature. Chapter Two presents a historical overview of women’s employment and the major ideology by which it has been underpinned in British society together with the ways in which the different patterns of employment between men and women have served to disadvantage women, particularly in economic terms. Chapter Three explores women as employees in more depth, particularly the ways in which organisations, occupations and spheres of work are profoundly gendered and how this, again, seems to work against women, although it will be shown that this is a contested area. The focus in Chapter Four is upon domestic labour and the ways in which its traditional construction as ‘women’s work’ has been strongly contested. The different ways in which work is itself construed, in both the traditional world of work and the private domain, sets the scene for a change of emphasis. The literature reflects a movement, in Chapter Five, from a concentration upon the inequalities and injustices heaped upon women through patriarchal structures towards a redefinition of the key issues through an exploration of the increasingly blurred distinctions between paid work, unpaid domestic work, care and leisure. A reinterpretation of caring and how this may be incorporated into the discourse on gender and work has been highlighted. It is argued that there is a clear need for more serious account to be taken of the lived experiences of both men and women, to celebrate, rather than denigrate, gender differences and to strive to understand the ways in which such differences are constructed in ways which may disadvantage both men and women. Chapter Two The nature and extent of women’s employment Many commentators have noted the different ways in which women and men have organized their lives together and how the work that each undertakes has changed and developed over time (Crompton, 1997; Hatt,1997). Crompton (1997) describes how the gender division of labour originated from, and was profoundly reshaped by, the advent of industrialisation in Britain. By the turn of the 20th century, men became increasingly associated with paid or market work, whilst women were identified with the household and non-market work. This trend became intimately connected with an ideology of womanhood which effectively served to exclude women from ‘market’ work. As Crompton asserts, the male-breadwinner model emerged from the ideology of ‘separate spheres’ in which â€Å"the home and domestic sphere was defined as belonging to women, whilst that of the outside world including the workplace – was defined as that of men† (1997, p.8). There seems little doubt, as will become clear later in this review, that assuming the main responsibility for household tasks and child-rearing has had a significant impact upon women’s participation in market work. The idea that this responsibility is somehow ‘natural’ can be said to underpin many family-related explanations for women’s behaviour in the labour market, however, this is clearly a contentious issue. Those who support the view that the gender division of labour manifested in today’s society is rooted in biological differences between the sexes include Hakim (1995; 1996) and Browne (1998). Hakim (1995), for example, sets out to explain the particular patterns of women’s employment in Britain and how they are distinct from those of men. She draws on findings from the socio-biological field which cite male traits of aggressiveness, dominance and competitiveness as rooted in hormonal differences between men and women. These natural masculine traits are seen as instrumental in the disproportionate participation and success of men in the employment sphere. In similar vein, Browne (1998) argues, that biologically influenced sex differences in behaviour have important ramifications for the occupational choices made by men and women in the working sphere and their differential employment patterns. Whilst clearly decrying outright sexual discrimination, Browne suggests that â€Å"much of the glass ceiling and gender gap is the product of basic biological sex differences in personality and temperament acting in the context of the modern labour market† and that these differences are the product of â€Å"differential reproductive strategies followed by the two sexes during the course of human evolution† (1998, p.5). Browne argues that instead of denying the reality of these natural sex differences in the pursuit of socially constructed explanations for the ‘gender gap’, it will be more productive for feminists, in particular, to embrace them and incorporate them into future discourse about work. Hakim (1995; 1996) is also critical of feminist commentators on women’s employment, such as Wallaby (1990), who have suggested that occupational segregation, the construction of women’s jobs as separate from men’s jobs, has been a mechanism through which women have been systematically denied access to jobs by men. Hartmann (1982), as cited by Crompton (1997), described the rationale behind occupational segregation by sex as the mechanism through which men’s superiority over women is maintained by enforcing lower wages for women in the labour market in order ensure their dependence on men. Hartmann (1982) asserts that â€Å"men benefit from both higher wages and the domestic division of labour† and thus, the latter, in turn, serves to perpetuate women’s inferior position in the labour market (Crompton,1997, p.11). Hakim argues against this analysis, however, suggesting that the different pattern of women’s labour-force participation and work commitment is due to women’s choices according to their tastes and preferences. Hence, some women choose to give more priority to their domestic role and child-rearing and less to their employment careers, though, for example, working part-time rather than full-time or opting for less demanding occupations (Hakim, 1996). Hat (1997) discusses the issue of gender and work from an economic perspective and points out that the labour resources of an economy include women and men engaging in productive activity in both the labour market and the household. The working population, however, is term most often used, particularly by economists, to describe those women and men who are engaged in paid employment, self-employment, in Forces, on work-related training schemes or registered as unemployed. This effectively excludes all those women or men in the unpaid sector and full-time homemakers. Hat (1997) records that in1993, in the 16 to 64 age group, 71% of all men and 53% of all women were participating in the working population. The Equal Opportunities Commission report that in the same age group in 2004, over 83% of men and 70% of women were ‘economically active’ (EOC, 2005, p.8). Although caution is needed in comparisons between different sets of statistics, it seems clear that a larger proportion of men than of women participate in the working population but the gap would seem to be closing. It is notable, however, that patterns of labour force participation by women and men are both distinct and different. Hat (1997) notes that, in 1993, for prime age male workers aged 24 to 49, participation rates were over 90%, declining after the age of 50. For women in 1993, the participation rate was 71% for the age range 24 to 34, falling to 54%for women with a child under 5 years old, increasing again as children enter school. Similarly, in 2004, 52% of mothers with children under 5years old were in employment, of these women, around 66% were working part-time. Crompton (1997) observes that almost all of the increase in women’s employment in Britain from the 1950s until the 1980s was impart-time work. This trend is further underlined in the latest statistics in that nearly half of all women (44%) and about 10% of all men work part-time (EOC, 2005). As the statistics show, clearly women are more likely than men to work on a part-time basis. Writers seem divided as to explanations for this phenomenon. Wallaby (1990), for example, has suggested that the expansion of part time employment represents a kind of capitalist, patriarchal conspiracy in which mainly male employers have secured women’s cheap and docile labour, whilst at the same time ‘freeing ‘women to continue undertaking domestic labour in the home. Crompton(1997), also, notes that â€Å"part-time work†¦.has a reputation of being insecure, low-paid and with little by way of training or promotion prospects† (p.33). She cites Beeches and Perkins (1987) who suggest that certain jobs were actually constructed as part-time jobs because they were seen as ‘women’s jobs’, invariably low graded and rarely defined as skilled (Crompton, 1997, p.33). Other writers, such as Hakim (1996), deny the assertion that employers have sought to construct ‘poor work’ for women, asserting instead that it is women themselves who have demanded part-time work to fit in with their other domestic responsibilities – employers have simply responded to meet this demand (Hakim, 1996). Evidence from research by Rubbery et al(1994), however, suggests that not only is part-time work less flexible than full-time work and of inferior quality, but also it has been developed largely to suit the needs of the employer. Since most part-time workers are women, it is women who are most affected by the disadvantages associated with this mode of work. Chapter Three Women as employees Hat (1997) traces the changes in the working population and employment patterns of men and women in recent decades, pointing out that whilst there has been a decline in male employment since 1980, female employment since that time has increased. She cites the official census data from 1994 which revealed that this latter increase was due to a greater proportion of mothers entering paid employment (Hatt,1997). It has been well-documented that within the labour market, women play a different role from men. As we have seen, women are more likely than men to work part-time and, as Hat observes, they also â€Å"work in different industries from men, occupy different positions even within mixed industries and are under-represented in senior positions†(1997, p.17). Many commentators have noted that women are concentrated in certain industries and occupations, such as clerical work, catering, cleaning and caring work whereas men are more often found in the manufacturing sector and the construction industry, for example (Hat, 1997; Franks,1999; Moe, 2003). Even when women and men are found in the same sector, men tend to occupy the more senior positions with women more often situated in the lower ranks of the hierarchy (Hat, 1997; Franks,1999). As Hat (1997) records, â€Å"women are under-represented at senior-levels throughout all occupational categories† (p.21). Crompton(1997) examines the banking industry, in some detail, as an example of the response to labour market demands for low-level clerical workers. She describes how this industry, along with others such as insurance and local government, helped â€Å"to generate a mass, feminized clerical labour force† (Crompton, 1997, p.107). Both direct and indirect discriminatory practices against women within particular banks came to light and pressure from the Equal Opportunities Commission forced some important policy changes. Crompton (1997) acknowledges that there have been major changes to employment practices in the financial sector in general, in later years, as far as gender equality is concerned. She cites structural factors, such as the demand for labour and the organization of the labour process alongside male exclusionary practices as the main contributors to the unequal position of female employees within the banking sector. She also concedes, however, that despite recent reforms, women continue to far outweigh men in occupying low-level positions in banking. It is useful, at this point, to identify the key pieces of government legislation in the UK which have been designed to directly address the issue of equal opportunities between women and men. The first is these Discrimination Act 1975 which promoted the basic principle that men and women should not be less favourably treated by virtue of their sexier marital status. The other is the Equal Pay Act 1975 designed to outlaw discrimination between women and men in the same employment, in pay and other conditions regarding their contracts of employment. This Act was later amended in 1984 to incorporate the Equal Pay for Equal Value principle. In addition to these Acts, the UK is also bound by Article 119 of the Treaty of Rome to uphold European Community equal treatment and equal pay directives (Griffin, 2002). The Equal Opportunities Commission, set up through the Sex Discrimination Act of 1975, functions as the expert organisation on equality between women and men, its main tasks being to â€Å"work towards the elimination of discrimination; to promote equality of opportunity and to keep under review the effectiveness of the Sex Discrimination and Equal Pay Acts† (Griffin, 2002, p.11). In the area of what has become known as the ‘gender pay gap’, it seems that, in general, the gap between male and female earnings has narrowed over the past 60 years, but the trend has been inconsistent. For example, female managers and administrators earned 55% of the annual earnings of their male counterparts on 1970, compared to only 33% in the mid 1920s (EOC,1999). However, this discrepancy narrowed by only 1% in this field of work between the mid 1950s and 1970. Since 1970, although this gap has narrowed significantly with women earning 63% of the pay of their male counterparts, compared to 81% for 1998, it was noted that â€Å"in all ethnic groups, men have higher average hourly earnings than women†(EOC, 1999, p.5). This statistical evidence for the steady narrowing of the gender pay gap appears encouraging in terms of the equality agenda. However, as Griffin (2002) observes, there are other relevant issues. She records that, when we look at all sources of income, including earnings from employment and self-employment, occupational pensions, investment and benefit income, women’s income is significantly lower than that of men, apart from state benefits. For example, figures taken from the EOC forth year 1996-7 showed that 45% of women had an income of less than £100 a week as compared with 20% of men (Griffin, 2002). More latterly, the EOC has recorded that the gender gap in terms of income has remained quite high, stating that â€Å"the gender gap between women and men’s mean individual incomes in 2002/3 was 46%† (EOC, 2005). The EOC (2001) records that despite improvements in recent years, stereotyping remains evident in many professional occupations. Notwithstanding the evidence that greater numbers of women are entering certain professions, such as higher education or the law, women’s share of higher level jobs remains generally low. Certain professional and technical occupations, the ‘occupational segregation’ noted earlier, apparently continue to be heavily dominated by either men or women(EOC, 2001). Empirical studies, especially within the feminist perspective over the past two decades, have moved away from the study of organizational structures per se in order to seek explanations for this persistence in the positioning of men and women in the workplace. Writers such as Pringle (1988), Chodorow (1989) and Halford and Savage(1995), for example, have instead demonstrated how specific kinds of masculinities and femininities, and discourses of gender, are constructed within the workplace. The emphasis here is upon recognizing the diversity of discourses on what it is to be a male or female employee and, ultimately, to avoid over-generalising about ‘all men’ or ‘all women’. One example of this is illustrated by Crompton(1997) in her exposition of different masculinities in the banking industry. She charts the movement within managerial positions in banking from a need for solid, paternalistic men towards the requirement for a more competitive, assertive masculinity within selling culture. Crompton (1997), however, argues that although these discursive, ‘post-modern’ insights do much to enhance our understanding of the pattern of women’s employment, and the different ways in which gender is constructed in the workplace, structural or material explanations remain important. Nazarko (2004) offers a contemporary analysis of the barriers faced by women in the workplace. She maintains that the drive for equal opportunities has hitherto failed to â€Å"challenge the premise that certain groups of workers such as women are less productive and less attractive to employers† (p.25) or the assumption that older workers, including women, are less valuable. Nazarko highlights the popularity of organisational initiatives which promote diversity and difference in the field of human resources. Wilson and Iles (1999), for example, have argued that â€Å"diversity management improves recruitment, retention and creativity within organisations† (Nazarko, 2004, p.25). Nazarkocites researchers such as Rosner (1995) who have pointed out that women and men have different styles of working and managing. Women, for example, tend to use interactional styles in management, encouraging participation, sharing power and information and energising others. In contrast, men tend to use transactional styles, seeing pieces of works series of transactions. Both styles are seen as equally valid and also, may be the preferred model for any individual, regardless of gender. It is argued, then, that both organisations and employees will benefit from initiatives which value diversity and difference, since people would be evaluated and treated as individuals, rather than asocial groups and associated stereotypical connotations. Nazarko(2004), however, fears that the diversity approach does not necessarily eliminate the power structures which persist in society. She argues that until female dominated professions such as nursing are valued as much as male dominated professions like the police force, it is difficult to see how gender equality can be attained. Chapter Four Domestic labour – women’s work? It is well-documented that the Industrial Revolution within the western world generated a distinction between paid work outside the home and unpaid domestic labour within the household. Men’s economic activity came to be focused upon paid work, hence the male breadwinner model, whilst women have commonly divided their working lives between the unpaid domestic sphere and activity in the labour market. Hat(1997) represents the feminist approach to this issue by highlighting the way in which women have long been disadvantaged, particularly in economic terms, by their traditional domestic responsibilities. Not only does their focus upon unpaid domestic task constrain their participation in paid work, domestic work itself â€Å"is an unpaid economic activity which has for too long passed unnoticed; the skills, which the successful homemaker acquires, go unrecognized in wage and promotion schemes† (Hat, 1997, p.50). The terms upon which both men and women are able to participate within the labour market are very different and in this respect, it would seem difficult to argue for a level of equality between the sexes. Many commentators have noted, household and child-rearing duties weigh more heavily upon women than men and have traditionally been excluded from economic analyses of participation in work in the widest sense(Crompton, 1997; Hat, 1997; Franks, 1999). As Hat observes â€Å"household responsibilities and paid employment are both valid productive activities but they are not equally rewarded by society†(1997, p. 49). DE et al (1995), in their analysis of the British Household Panel Survey in the mid 1990s, point out that very few men cited household or family responsibilities as affecting their labour market behaviour, whereas over 80% of women surveyed felt that their labour market participation had been adversely affected by these duties. As Franks(1999) points out, work has come to be synonymous with having a paid job and its counterpart is regarded as leisure. Thus, other kinds of activity such as cleaning the house, doing the shopping, cooking and caring for children and elderly relatives do not officially count as work, although for those involved, it may actually feel very much like work. Underpinning the traditional sexual division of labour is the idea that men’s paid work is dependent upon a shadow economy of women’s unpaid work (Franks, 1999). Thus, the increased participation of women in the formal paid workforce throws the spotlight onto the status of what had always essentially been regarded as a ‘labour of love’. Franks (1999) presents the example of widowed fathers who do not receive the lump sums, tax allowances and continuing state benefits received by widowed mothers. A missing father’s financial contributions recognised, whereas a widower’s deceased partner is considered to have had no economic value. One solution offered by some economists has been to officially regard this labour as a form of taxation whereby all of society benefits from it as if they were paying directly to the state (Franks, 1999). Other commentators (Charles and Kerr, 1999); Morris, 1999) have also stressed that despite the contemporary rhetoric of equality between the sexes, the traditional ideology which divides men and women into ‘breadwinner’ and ‘homemaker’ is still very much alive. Charles andKerr (1999), for example, point out that even where there may have been certain egalitarian sharing of domestic tasks within couples initially, once children arrive on the scene it is almost always the case that the woman takes on the responsibility for child-care and household tasks whilst the man takes on the role of breadwinner. It is argued that although, ostensibly, this arrangement may appear to be complementary relationship with roles being ‘different but equal’, there is a differential allocation of power which renders women disadvantaged. On giving up paid work outside the home, or taking on lower-paid, low-status part-time work, women relinquish their power and status, at least economically (Charles and Kerr, 1999). Having responsibility for decisions about food purchase, or other household necessities, cooking and childcare, it is argued, effectively constitutes the exercise of power by women in other people’s interests. As Charles and Kerr suggest, â€Å"most of them (women) carryout these tasks within a set of social relations which denies them power, particularly when they are at home all day with young children and are dependent for financial support on a man† (1999, p.192). There is a large body of contemporary opinion, evident in the literature, which calls for a redress of balance between the fundamental economic inequity between men and women, particularly within the family unit which includes dependent children. Franks(1999), for example, suggests that there will never be genuine equality between men and women â€Å"if male identity remains unaltered and unpaid work continues to be shuffled off onto women† (p.4). Franks goes on to assert that in a market system where unpaid work is invisible, there is no incentive for men to change their identity to encompass low-status, financially worthless activity (1999, p.4). Crompton (1997) presented her own analysis of the relationship between employment and the family with particular reference to the extent to which there has been any change in the domestic division of labour. She acknowledges that there has been some change, albeit very slow, and she cites research byGershuny et al (1994) who describe the process as one of ‘lagged adaptation’ in which changes tend to occur most often when women are engaged in full-time employment. Other researchers have found that although men, mainly middle-class men, have expressed a desire to become more involved in domestic and child care arrangements, there is little evidence that â€Å"equal† parenting is the reality (Lupton and Barclay, 1997). A more recent briefing by the Equal Opportunities Commission observes that there are many ways in which education, the family and access tithe labour market interact to produce different opportunities for women and men and which result in both men and women experiencing discrimination by virtue of gender. In relation to women in particular, this briefing comments that â€Å"women’s work should beer-evaluated, so that it is no longer undervalued and poorly paid†(EOC, 2002, p.1). Hat, in her analysis of gender, work and labour markets, concluded that â€Å"the domestic division of labour would certainly seem to lead to social injustice and it is debatable whether it furthers the efficient operation of the economy† (1997, p.50). Vogel and Pal (1999) present an interesting exposition of the connections between money and power and men and women within households. Their own research found that, in general, the partner with the greater income was likely to be more dominant indecision-making, with women partners in paid employment having greater power than those who work only in the home. There appear to have been few large-scale studies which have focused upon the experiences of social equality, or inequality, between individual members of the same household. The research conducted by Vogel and Pal (1999) draws on typology, constructed by Pal (1989), of household financial allocation systems, constituting the female whole-wage system, the housekeeping allowance system, the pooling system and the independent management system. In the female whole-wage system, women were given their husband’s pay packet, and had sole responsibility for managing the whole household budget. In the housekeeping allowance system, the women were given a fixed sum for housekeeping expenses, the men having prime responsibility for other expenditure. The pooling system was used where partners pooled their earnings and shared access to and responsibility for managing expenditure from the common, joint fund. Finally, the independent management system operated where both partners had independent incomes (usually dual-earner couples), each partner taking responsibility for particular items of expenditure, although this may vary over time. Vogel and Pal (1999) conducted a survey, combined with interviews, of1,211 couples across six British urban areas, covering Swindon, Aberdeen, Northampton, Coventry, Rochdale and Kirkcaldy. Respondents, aged between 20 and 60 years, were questioned on the household financial allocation system which came closest to their own mode of household finance management. By far the most common system used waste pool which was adopted by half of all the couples surveyed, with the remaining half choosing one of the other segregated systems (Voglerand Pal, 1999). The data was further analysed to determine the relationship between strategic financial control and access to money as a resource within the households studied. It was found that in the joint pooling households â€Å"joint management was associated with both equal strategic control over finances and also with equal access to money as a resource† (Vogel and Pal, 1999, p.143). In the female-controlled management systems, constituting just over two-fifths of the sample, a disjunction was found between control over finances and access to money as a resource. The researchers highlighted their finding that even where ostensibly, these women had greater financial control and power in decision-making, significantly higher levels of personal deprivation were experienced by the women with the men more likely to have more personal spending money than their female partners, especially in lower-income families. As Vogel and Pal observe, â€Å"where the opportunities for exercising financial power are heavily circumscribed by low income and by the husband’s expectation of personal spending money, ‘responsibility’ may be a more appropriate term than ‘control’!† (1999, p.144). This more detailed analysis presented by Vogel and Pal (1999), together with that of other researchers, such as Morris (1999), provides evidence for the ways in which patterns of gender and class inequalities tend to interlock to increase the differences between women and men. A different perspective upon the issue of gender differences and gender equality in the arena of household work and parenting is provided bother researchers. Doucette (1995), for example, highlights the tendency for debates on this issue to become focused upon the relationship between women’s greater responsibility for household work and caring role, and their relative inequality to men in employment and public life. She argues that whilst this is an important issue, insufficient account has been taken of the â€Å"various configurations that gender differences may take within household life† (Doucette, 1995, p.271). Doucette suggests that much of the literature on the gender division of household labour is situated within an ‘equality’ or ‘equal rights ‘framework, which itself, tends to be constructed through a masculine perspective. For example, she argues that a â€Å"male model of minimal participation in housework and child care† is pitched in relation to a â€Å"male model of full-time employment† (Doucette, 1995, p. 274). Whilst it is clearly documented that women’s employment is compromised through the need for women, as a

Time, Talent and Tangible Resources :: essays research papers

Time, Talent and Tangible Resources It is difficult to believe that it is already time to write my fourth and final column as president of NCSEA for the Child Support Quarterly. Although this is my last major writing assignment, many opportunities to be of service to the child support community remain available between now and August 2, 2000, and I assure you that I will avail myself of as many of them as are humanly possible. I decided to close out my series of these columns by sharing with the broader NCSEA family my personal view of what our beloved child support program should look like in the future. I have long held that the child support program needs to look much more like the backroom of MasterCard, Visa or American Express rather than a cash assistance program. There is little question that the child support program was the cash assistance program designed to provide comprehensive reinforcements to families in need. Child support, as well as the other programs in our income assistance system, has a unique contribution to make to family well-being. The question is: how can child support best make that contribution. Whatever else may be added to or subtracted from it, I believe, child support’s core functions will always include establishing paternities, locating noncustodial parents obligated to pay child support, establishing support orders, enforcing those orders, collecting and distributing child support payments. I would suggest the customer service centers for this country’s credit card industry hold some valuable and transferable approaches that can be used to improve not only the delivery of child support services, but also the public perception of the child support community. Just think about it. When you call your credit card company about a recent purchase or their failure to properly credit a recent payment, you don’t even know, let alone have a long-standing relationship with, the customer service representative. They do not have to â€Å"case manage† you in order to provide you with value added service. You simply make the call, state your problem and get the information you need. The customer service representative has the appropriate charge investigated (with the understanding that the charge will be removed from your account in the interim), sends you a letter verifying the nature of this interaction and you move on a happy camper - at least for the moment. That is the level of service that the American public has come to expect in their daily business transactions, and that is the level service that the public anticipates from the child support program.

The German World of Disappointment :: Essays Papers

The German World of Disappointment From the youngest child to the oldest man, everyone has experienced the unpleasant feeling of disappointment. Everyone has been to a place that was not all that they anticipated it to be. No one can say that someone has never somehow let them down. At one point or another, everyone has been disappointed in something they have purchased. And what child is not heart-broken when he learns there is no Santa Claus? Whether it is in a person, thing, place, or idea, disappointment can be the most devastating and hurtful feeling people face. Disappointment is an experience that the German people, especially, have had to live through. The German writer, Heinrich Boll, uses his story â€Å"Pale Anna† to illustrate the universal experience of disappointment, an experience his countrymen are very familiar with, through both literature and history. When a long-lost German soldier returns to his hometown five years after World War II has ended, he returns to a place that is familiar, but everyone he knows is gone. His new landlady constantly asks him if he knew her dead son. She talks endlessly about her dearly departed son’s life and shows him again and again all the pictures of her son. The final picture that was taken of the landlady’s son was of him at his job as a streetcar conductor. All the other occasions that the soldier had seen it he reminisced about his own time spent at that particular terminus. He remembers the pop stand, the trees, the villa with the golden lions, and especially a girl that he thought of often during the war that always boarded the streetcar at that terminus. The soldier never recognizes any of the people in the picture until he had been there for three weeks and then he sees the girl in the streetcar. The landlady tells him that the girl was her son’s fiancà ©e and th at she is living in the room next to his. Pale Anna is what they always call her because of her extremely white face, but her face was unrecognizably destroyed when she was thrown through a window by a bomb blast. The soldier returns to his room and tries unsuccessfully to imagine Anna’s face being anything else but beautiful, even with scars. He thinks about his past romances and remembers them as complete disappointments.

An Era of Inhumanity :: American America History

An Era of Inhumanity Writers differ in the purpose for which they write. Some aim to entertain, but the more serious and skilled writers usually have the goal of expressing a serious idea. Writers such as Hariet Beecher Stowe and Alex Haley are writers who write for more than mere entertainment. Uncle Tom's Cabin, written by Harriet Beecher Stowe, had a political purpose. Stowe intended to help America realize the inhumanity of slavery and the pain it brought upon African-Americans by writing a melodramatic novel. She despised the South for practicing slavery and the North as well for their prejudice against blacks. Roots was written by Alex Haley in search of his origin. His hunger for knowledge of who he was and who his ancestors were inspired him to carry out numerous years of research and countless interviews in order to finish his book. Although Alex Haley wrote Roots in search of his origin and Harriet Beecher Stowe wrote Uncle Tom's Cabin for a political purpose, both authors lead readers to sympa thize with the predicaments of African-Americans by putting a human face, as well as a racial one on the tragedy of slavery, thus involving all readers in the inhumanity of the institution. In Uncle Tom's Cabin we are cordially introduced to Uncle Tom. He is a "large, broad-chested, powerfully-made man, of a full glossy black, and a face whose truly African feature [are] characterized by and expression of grave and steady good sense, united with much kindliness and benevolence"(Stowe 24). By her description of Tom, Stowe contradicts the common stereotype that blacks are savages and inhumane by giving Uncle Tom the characteristics of an ideal, honest man. He is described as being "kind" and "benevolent" as well as having an "expression of good sense". Stowe also portrays Uncle Tom as a perfect being. It seems as if his personality is without a flaw and seems too good to be true. By giving Uncle Tom this flawless characteristic, Stowe is able to show that he too is human although his difference in skin color. As one is introduced to the setting of Uncle Tom's cabin, one feels at home and very relaxed. Aunt Chloe's cooking of various tasty dishes adds to the serene environ ment of the cabin and as we see Uncle Tom learning how to read and write from his young "Mas'r George," it seems as though there are no worries, hardships are unknown, and an utopia exists within the walls of the cabin.

Political and Socioeconomic Essay

The communication gap between First and Third world feminist, as expressed by Narayan lies within a cultural setting: though Western feminism is still an upholding to the rights of women, Third world feminism speaks towards a culture’s specific issues, as Narayan writes, â€Å"I am arguing that Third-World feminism is not a mindless mimicking of ‘Western agendas’ in one clear and simple sense – that, for instance, Indian feminism is clearly a response to issues specifically confronting many Indian women† (13). Thus, feminism is explicit to country and cultural beliefs, not hinging upon a predetermined, or in this case Western view. There are many people, mostly women, who have been fighting for their equal rights – and we now commonly call this as feminism. Feminism started not merely on 19th century, but even during the 17th to 18th century. This is the very reason why feminists have gotten so much attention from well respected organization and government officials. With this idea in mind, many are now asking, who are the women who started the feminist movements and what prompted them to initiate such action? By digging deeper to what the real meaning of feminism is, it can also be identified the first few women who fought and strived really hard just to show the world that feminism is indeed worth fighting for. These women have their own issues that they highlighted and it all boils down to the fact that females are not just a decoration for males, instead, they are people who can be effective even in dealing with other important aspects of he society like the government. Feminists’ ideas started during the time of the infamous Enlightenment, with Lady Mary Wortley Montagu and the Marquis de Condorcet who initiated championing women’s education. The first scientific society for women was founded in Middleberg, a city in the south of the Dutch republic, in 1785. Journals for women which focused on issues like science became popular during this period as well. Mary Wollstonecraft’s A Vindication of the Rights of Woman is one of the first works that can be called feminist, although by modern standards her comparison of women to the nobility, the elite of society, coddled, fragile, and in danger of intellectual and moral sloth, does not sound like a feminist argument. Wollstonecraft believed that both sexes contributed to this situation and took it for granted that women had considerable power over men. Indeed, it was during the late 17th century to the early 18th century that the earliest works on the so-called â€Å"woman question† criticized the restrictive role of women, without necessarily claiming that women were disadvantaged or that men were to blame (Deckard, 1975). When 18th century came, the movement is generally believed to have begun as people increasingly came to believe that women were treated unfairly under the law. The feminist movement is rooted in the West and especially in the reform movement of the 19th century. The organized movement is dated from the first women’s rights convention at Seneca Falls, New York, in 1848 (Deckard, 1975). This feminism started not on one place or country, but coincidentally, a lot of women from various countries around the world fought for their rights as and equal and rightful members of the society. Emmeline Pankhurst was one of the founders of the suffragette movement and aimed to reveal the institutional sexism in British society, forming the Women’s Social and Political Union (WSPU). Often the repeated jailing for forms of activism that broke the law, particularly property destruction, inspired members went on hunger strikes. Due to the resultant force-feeding that was the practice, these members became very ill, serving to draw attention to the brutality of the legal system at that time. In an attempt to solve this the government introduced a bill that became known as the Cat and Mouse Act, which allowed women to be released when they starved themselves to dangerous levels, then to be re-arrested later. (Deckard, 1975). Meanwhile, the Feminist movement in the Arab world saw Egyptian jurist Qasim Amin, the author of the 1899 pioneering book Women’s Liberation, as the father of Arab Feminist Movement. In his work Amin criticized some of the practices prevalent in his society at the time, such as polygamy, the veil, or women’s segregation, and condemned them as un-Islamic, and contradicting the true spirit of Islam. His work had an enormous influence on women’s political movements throughout the Islamic and Arab world, and is read and cited today (Deckard, 1975). Various women were able to raise their voices during that time. They were able to capture the attention of many and hear out their grievances. Let us take a closer look at each of the famous and most influential women during this Abolition Movement, and create a more prominent appreciation on their ways and methods of fighting for their cause. Among the most influential women whose actions were all aimed at highlighting the feminist rights, the Grimke sisters (Sarah Grimke and Angelina Grimke Weld) topped the list. Motivated by religion and a desire to live a useful life, they were among the first American women to speak in public. They wrote a number of tracts against slavery and for woman’s rights. To abolitionist acclamations, Angelina became the first American woman to address a state legislature. Both sisters would remain abolitionists and woman’s rights activists for the remainder of their lives with Angelina concentrating on the abolitionist movement and Sarah concentrating on the woman’s rights movement (Lerner, 1998). Sarah Grimke offered the best and most coherent Bible argument for woman’s equality yet written by a woman. She was also able to identify and characterize the distinction between sex and gender; she took class and race into consideration; and she tied the subordination of women both to educational deprivation and sexual oppression. She identified men, individually and as a group, as having benefited from the subordination of women. Above all, she understood that women must acquire feminist consciousness by conscious effort and that they must practice asserting their rights in order to think more appropriately (Lerner, 1998). Angelina, on the other hand, in several of her pamphlets and speeches, developed a strong argument for women’s rights to political equality. In her insistence on women’s right, even duty, to organize for political participation and to petition, she anticipated the practice and tactics women would follow for the rest of the century. In both her â€Å"Appeal to Southern Women† and in her â€Å"Letters to Catherine Beecher† she fashioned a defense of women’s right to organize in the antislavery cause which connected it with the causes of white women and influenced the practice of several succeeding generations (Lerner, 1998). It is therefore in culture that the main difference between First-World and Third-World feminism lays. The treatment of women in India is one filled with hypocrisy. In Narayan’s essay, the India chastises Western civilization for their treatment of women; for instance, Indian women were permitted to attend higher education classes decades before the English even considered the aspect. Indian’s say that they treat their women as goddesses, while the West treats their women far less as equals, but this in turn is duplicitous, in examples Narayan gives of the treatment from men received by her grandmothers, and her mother (chastisement, beatings, and submissiveness, and silence). Narayan gives childhood examples of how she became a feminist, and they are not dominantly rooted in the idea of Westernization, but culturally in a Third-World view, as she writes, â€Å"†¦though I cannot bring myself to it, of her pain that surrounded me when I was young, a pain that was earlier than school and ‘Westernization’, a call to rebellion that has a different and more primary root, that was not conceptual or English, but in the mother-tongue† (7). This then gives insight into how feminism isn’t dependent upon the introduction of Western culture in liberating women, but is in fact contingent upon a witness’s own account of oppression and their reaction to that oppression, that is that Narayan’s own rebellion was a response to her mother’s sadness in being trapped by her mother-in-law and her marriage. This exemplifies the difference between First-World and Third-World feminism, the fact that Narayan must contend with the paradigm of Western feminism instead of simply revered as representing her own culture’s fault; Narayan is not representing Western ideas but is only supporting equality and fair treatment for her fellow Indian women. In the Indian culture, women are perceived to become wives first and their own identity as a person is wiped away by such a paradigm, this is true for the incentive of women’s movements, the West included. Indian wives are submissive and the Third-World culture enhances this notion by parlaying women into marriage at the age of thirteen (as Narayan’s grandmother had done), and treating them as Other rather than as Self. Narayan writes of the predominant sentiment found in India in regards to women, â€Å"They were anxious about the fact that our independence and self-assertiveness seemed to be making us into women who lacked the compliance, deference, and submissiveness deemed essential in good â€Å"Indian† wives† (8). The wife and mother ideas of women are predominant in most cultures, and the concord factor between First and Third world feminism is united in this fact, and their rebellion against such submissiveness. The culture of feminism is presented as one that has great bonds with politics. For both First-World and Third-World feminism there is no difference in the root of feminism when it is in politics, and political campaigns that women are often secluded: in schooling, voting, and citizenship, women have been treated secondarily in both First and Third world cultures. Therefore, Narayan’s generation of Third-world feminist aren’t rebelling because of Westernization, but because in their own politics women have been forgotten in India and in the West, â€Å" It takes political connections to other women and their experiences, political analyses of women’s problems, and attempts to construct political solutions for them, to make women into feminists in any full-blooded sense, as the history of women’s movements in various parts of the world shows us. † Therefore, the dichotomy of First-World and Third-World feminism finds harmony in this political connection. The westernization of Indian has been blamed for the rebellious nature of feminism and even the introduction of the women’s movement, but in fact, it is the own culture’s deviant nature that gives rise to the necessity of feminism. Narayan gives example of her cousin being tortured with cigarettes and being locked away while in another country and keeping silent about it for years until a relative came to visit. The silence is the devastating part of the story; in Indian culture, it is supposed and indeed ingrained in Indian women to hold their tongues, and be submissive, and not innocent, but obedient. Yet, western culture was seen to pervade the Indian traditional way of living, â€Å"Veiling, polygamy, child-marriage, and sati were all significant points of conflict and negotiation between colonizing â€Å"Western† culture and different colonized third-World cultures. In these conflicts, Western colonial powers often depicted indigenous practices as symptoms of the â€Å"backwardness and barbarity’ of Third-World cultures in contract to the â€Å"progressiveness of Western culture. † The figure of the colonized woman became a representation of the oppressiveness of the entire ‘cultural tradition’ of the colony. â€Å" (17) The effect of this colonization of Indian women was one of conflicting progressiveness. Traditions of Indian culture were already bred with English sentiments (such as the sari) and English clothing was continually being upgraded and introduced into Indian culture; in fact men were wearing suits long before women were allowed to change into less traditional clothing. In one example Narayan gives, she and her family went on a vacation in a more rural part of the country and she was instructed to wear her Indian clothing and not her Western clothes because she had hit puberty (though in the city nothing was wrong with such clothes), Narayan writes, â€Å"My story reveals that what counted as ‘inappropriately Western dress’ differed from one specific Indian context to another, even within the same class and caste community†(27). The effects of Westernization therefore and colonization give rise to differing ideas of what constitutes traditional wear from one part of the country to another. In conclusion, Narayan gives insight to how differing opinions of feminism are still spurned from similar ideals. Third-World feminists are not ‘outsiders within’, that is, they are not denying the tradition of their country, but instead, feminists need to challenge some of the more patriarchal rules of India. Third-World feminists are not denying their culture, but are asking for change. Work Cited Ahmed, Sara (2004). â€Å"The Cultural Politics of Emotion†. Routledge Publishing Boydston, Kelley, Margolis, The Limits of Sisterhood, p. 178. Deckard, Barbara. 1975. The Women’s Movement: Political, Socioeconomic and Psychological Issues New York: Harper & Row. p. 253. Gerda Lerner. 1988. The Grimke Sisters from South Carolina: Pioneers for Women’s Rights and Abolition. Oxford University Press. Narayan, Uma. Speech and Silence in the Mother Tongue. Yee. Shirley J. Abolitionist Movement. February 2002. Sunshine for women.